Page 92

		Chapter 16 How to Keyboard the Manuscript

		Then the black-bright, smooth-running clicking clean Brushed, oiled and dainty typewriting machine, With tins of ribbons waiting for the blows Which soon will hammer them to verse and prose. John Masefield

		Importance of a Well-Prepared Manuscript

		When you have finished the experiments and written up the work, the final typing of the manuscript is not important because, if your work is good, sound science, it will be accepted for publication. Right? That is wrong. Not only will a badly typed (word-processed) manuscript fail to be accepted for publication, but also, in most journal operations, a sloppily prepared manuscript will not even be considered.

		At the Journals Division of the American Society for Microbiology, which is not atypical in this respect, every newly submitted manuscript is examined first simply on the basis of the typing. As an irreducible minimum, the manuscript must be typed (not handwritten), double-spaced (not single-spaced), on one side of the sheet only (not both sides); three complete copies (including three sets of tables, graphs, and photographs) must be provided; and reasonable adherence to the style of the journal (appropriate headings, proper form of literature citation, presence of a heading abstract) must be in evidence. If the manuscript

Page 93

		fails on any of these major points, it may be immediately returned to the author, or review may be delayed until the author supplies the missing materials.

		Consider this a cardinal rule: Before the final copy of your manuscript is prepared, carefully examine the Instructions to Authors of the journal to which you are submitting the manuscript. Some journals and publishers the American Society for Microbiology (1998), the American Medical Association (1998), the American Psychological Association (1994), and the American Chemical Society (Dodd, 1997) being good examplesissue remarkably complete and helpful instructions (style manuals). Also look carefully at a recent issue of that journal. Pay particular attention to those aspects of editorial style that tend to vary widely from journal to journal, such as the style of literature citation, headings and subheadings, size and placement of the abstract, design of tables and figures, and treatment of footnotes.

		By the way, an increasing number of journals seem to be refusing to accept text footnotes. The main reason for this is the significant printing cost of carrying the footnotes at the bottom of the page, in a different type font, and of having to recompose each page that carries a footnote in order to put the footnote at the bottom of that page (after the compositor identifies which footnotes are cited on which pages). Furthermore, footnotes are disruptive to readers, making papers more difficult to read quickly with comprehension. Therefore, do not use footnotes unless a particular journal requires them for some purpose. Most journals require "present address" footnotes if an author has moved; some journals require that the names of manufactured products be footnoted, with the footnotes giving the names and addresses of the manufacturers. Whenever somewhat extraneous material needs to be mentioned, do it parenthetically in the text. Some journals have a "References and Notes" section at the end of each paper, thus obviating the need for text footnotes.

		In an ideal world, perhaps good science could be published without regard to the format of the carrier (the typed manuscript). In the real world, however, busy editors and reviewers, who serve without salary in most operations, simply cannot and will not take the time to deal with messy, incomplete manuscripts. Further, most experienced editors believe that there is a direct relationship involved: A poorly prepared manuscript is, almost without fail, the carrier vehicle of poor science.

Page 94

		Therefore, my advice to you is firm on this point. If you want your manuscript to be published (and why else would you be submitting it?), make very sure that the submitted manuscript is typed neatly, without errors, in the style of the journal, and that it is complete in all respects. This is a must.

		Your manuscript should be typed or printed out on white bond paper, 216 by 279 mm (8½ by 11 in.), or ISO A4 (212 by 297 mm), with margins of at least 25 mm (1 in.). This "hardcopy" is submitted with a disk if that is a requirement of the publisher.

		Paging the Manuscript

		It is advisable to start each section of a manuscript on a new page. The title and authors' names and addresses are usually on the first page, and this page should be number 1. The Abstract is on the second page. The Introduction starts on the third page, and each succeeding section (Materials and Methods, Results, etc.) then starts on a new page. Figure legends are grouped on one separate page. The tables and figures (and figure legends) should be assembled at the back of the manuscript, not interspersed through it.

		Historically, the "new page" system was a requirement of many journals because the older typesetting technology required separation of different material. If, for example, the journal style called for 8-point type in the Abstract and 9-point type in the Introduction, these two sections had to go to different lead-casting machines. Thus, the copy had to be cut unless the natural divisions were provided for in advance.

		Because of the flexibility of modern phototypesetters, copy no longer has to be cut. Yet, it is still a good idea to preserve these natural divisions. Even if the divisions no longer aid the typesetting process, they often are useful to you in the manuscript revision process. Often, for example, you may decide (or the reviewers may decree) that a particular method should be added, expanded, shortened, or deleted. The chances are that the Materials and Methods section could be retyped, from the page of the change to the end, without disturbing the rest of the manuscript. Probably only the amount of white space on the last page of Materials and Methods would change. Even if the new material requires additional space, you need not disturb the later sections. Suppose, for example, that the Materials and Methods section in your original

Page 95

		manuscript concludes on page 5, the Results begin on page 6, and there isn't enough white space on page 5 to allow for insertion of the needed new material. Simply retype Materials and Methods from the page of change on, going from page 5 to page 5a (and 5b, etc., if necessary). The Results and later sections need not be touched.

		Margins and Headings

		Your manuscript should have wide margins. A full inch (ca. 25 mm) at the top, bottom, and both sides is about minimum. You will need this space yourself during revisions of the manuscript. Later, the copyeditor and the compositor will need this space to enter necessary instructions. Also, it is advantageous to use paper with numbered lines, for ease in pointing to problems throughout the editorial and printing process.

		Before the final typing, examine your headings carefully. The main headings ("Materials and Methods," etc.) are usually no problem. These headings should be centered, with space above and below.

		In addition to main headings, most journals use subheadings (e.g., boldface paragraph lead-ins). These should be designed as convenient signposts to help direct the reader through the paper. Consult a recent issue of the journal to determine what kinds of headings it uses. If the journal uses boldface or italic lead-ins, have them typed that way. Headings and subheadings should be "labels," not sentences.

		Do not make the common mistake of using a third (or even a fourth) level of heading, unless such usage is specified by the journal. Two levels of headings are usually sufficient for research papers, and many journals do not permit more. Review journals, however, usually specify three or four levels of headings because of the greater length of review papers.

		Special Problems

		Keep in mind that the keyboarding done by you is not very different from that done later by the compositor. If you have a problem with your manuscript, it is likely that the compositor will also have a problem. See if you can identify and then resolve some of these problems, to make it easy on you and the compositor. For example, most input devices (like the old-fashioned office typewriter) move relentlessly forward, meaning that it is difficult or impossible to set certain overs and unders. Comput

Page 96

		ers have solved or eased many problems, but an over-under fraction, such as  can still be difficult. Change the form to (ab - c)/(de - x), and there is no problem. Likewise, it is difficult to set an inferior letter directly under a superior. Thus, a21 is not a problem but a21 is a problem. The term ax2 in the text is a problem for some typesetting devices. The easy alternative is to state "the square root of ax2." If a formula simply cannot be put in a form suitable for keyboarding, you should consider furnishing it as an India ink drawing. You will thus save yourself and the compositor a lot of trouble, and you might save yourself a lot of grief. The camera will set your formula perfectly; the typesetting process might not.

		Another problem is the difference in spelling between American-English and British-English. To avoid difficulties for yourself as well as for typesetters and proofreaders, use American spellings in a manuscript being submitted to a journal in the United States, and use British spellings in a manuscript being submitted to a journal in Great Britain.

		The Electronic Manuscript

		Computers now have an enormous impact on the way scientific papers are written and published. Most science journals are now accepting author submissions in digital format, and many are beginning to support online electronic versions. Traditionally, the process of writing and publishing scientific papers developed one step after the other in a linear process. The author submitted a draft of his or her paper to a journal. The paper, if of interest to the publisher, was reviewed by both editors and peers. Their comments were used to refine the work. When the paper was published, a librarian classified the article and cataloged it for future access.

		In the past, these processes were independent of each other, and separate individuals and departments carried them out. In present-day journal publishing, the process has changed. Budgets have shrunk, and the review process has speeded up. Functions overlap as authors become typesetters and graphic artists as well as scientists; publishers often give authors guidelines and templates for use in writing their manuscripts. Publishers frequently supply standards for visual presentation that are intended to aid the production process and to improve the clarity of concepts contained in the text. With the advent of desktop publishing, few individuals or academic departments any longer rely on the type-

Page 97

		writer. Indeed, many journal publishers have handed at least part of the production of the typeset manuscript to the author.

		Hardware

		Computers and Printers

		A personal computerusing either a Macintosh or a Windows operating systemis, of course, the essential piece of hardware. Most laboratories and universities now use personal computers connected to each other on a large network, with a server providing all the connected units with access to files, applications, and the Internet. If you are using Windows, a computer with the slower 486 processor and the older 3.1 version of Windows will work fine for most of your purposes. However, if available, a Pentium processor, from 133 mHz. on up, will prove better suited for the creation of graphics. The older, slower Macintosh computers will satisfactorily meet most of your word-processing needs, although the newer Power Macs will prove more useful with graphics applications. Listed below are some other important computer features to consider when preparing your electronic manuscript.

		• Hard Drive: Your hard drive holds your applications and files. Unless you plan to use many applications and create many graphics files, a 1.2-gigabyte drive is usually large enough. Most new machines come with at least a 1.2-gigabyte hard drive.

		• CD-ROM Drive: Most computers today come with a drive that can read CD-ROM disks. Many software programs are now available on CD-ROM.

		• Memory: If you are using your computer for writing only, you can make do with 8 megabytes of RAM (random access memory). However, if you plan to create graphics and run more than one application at a time, you will need at least 16 megabytes of RAM. Most new machines come with at least 16 megabytes. If you are working with digital photographs and other continuous-tone graphics, plan on needing at least 32 megabytes of RAM.

		• Monitor: Monitors come in several sizes15-inch, 17-inch, and 20-inch, measured on the diagonal. If your budget allows, get a 20-inch monitor; it is large enough to view almost an entire page of text at one time. In addition, you can open a second page for comparison or open

Page 98

		a related graphic to view side by side. A 17-inch monitor is your next best bet. Most new monitors will allow you to adjust the screen resolution so that you can see more of the image, just a little bit smaller.

		Another vital piece of hardware is the printer. Professional journals frequently accept computer-generated line art; you will require the use of a laser printer that is capable of producing clear, high-quality graphics as well as dark, easily read text. Journals require that laser-generated output be printed at 600 dpi (dots per inch) resolution; any lower resolution is unacceptable because it will not reprint well. Your printer will thus need to be capable of black-and-white laser output at 600 dpi.

		Portable Drives, Modems, and Digital Cameras

		To avoid losing all your hard work in the event of a computer catastrophe, you should backup (save) your data somewhere apart from your hard drive. Most manuscript files are short enough to be backed up on a floppy disk. However, if you are working on a number of files, keeping track of disks may become a problem. To avoid this problem, you can use a portable drive, which holds more data.

		• Syquest Drive: Although the venerable Syquest is gradually being replaced by new types of equipment, it is still one of the most widely used portable drives. The easily transportable cartridges come in 44- , 88- , and 200-megabyte sizes. The 200-megabyte drive will read all three sizes; it will write or copy data to 88- and 200-megabyte cartridges. Cartridges sell for around $50 each.

		• Zip Drive: If you are planning to purchase a new drive, the Iomega Zip drive is an excellent choice for most general uses. The drive is priced at around $150, and the cartridges, which look like fat diskettes, sell for about $15 each. Each holds 100 megabytes of data. The Zip is gradually replacing the Syquest in terms of general availability. The drive is light and small and can easily be carried in a briefcase. The Zip can be connected to either a PC or a Mac, and Zip software for each type of computer is provided by the drive's manufacturer.

		• Jaz Drive: Iomega Jaz drive is a good choice if you require larger data storage. The drive is more expensive than the Zip, selling for around $400. The cartridges hold a full gigabyte of data and cost about $130.

Page 99

		Modems are the link between an Internet server and your computer. The faster your modem is, the more quickly Web pages will appear on your screen. The v28 modem runs at 28.8 kbps (28,800 bits per second) and can be purchased for $125 or less. Somewhat faster speeds (32 and 54 kbps) are available for $50 to $100 more. For twice as much speed, ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) lines running at 57.6 kbps are available from your telephone company. Prices and availability vary greatly for these lines, from state to state and from one phone company to another. Your Internet service provider will charge you more for an ISDN connection. If you are using a modem at a school or business facility, the connections are probably the traditional T1 or T2 lines, which can handle many connections at one time. Unless line traffic is especially heavy, Web pages load quickly on T1 and T2 connections.

		If your work entails the use of photographic evidence, you might consider buying a digital camera. However, lower resolution cameras are excellent choices for images you plan to view only on a computer screen, either for oral presentations or for the Web.

		Software

		Word-Processing Applications

		Word-processing programs can do some page layout, but they are essentially developed for writing. They include functions for copying, cutting, and pasting text and allow you to set margins and work with one or more columns of text. You can select from a variety of typefaces in an assortment of sizes. The more powerful word-processing programs include spell checkers, a thesaurus, automatic page numbering, and automatic citation insertion. Some word processors allow you to create tables and simple artwork, while others even include a grammar checker. Many journals recommend using Microsoft Word or WordPerfect, two of the most common and most popular word-processing programs. Word and WordPerfect are available for both Windows and Macintosh operating systems.

		Grammar- and spell-checking functions are helpful but should not be relied on too heavily. Spell checkers should be used only to correct typographical errors. Proofreading is still necessary to prevent errors in context (bow instead of bough, for example); however, proofreading for

Page 100

		contextual errors is usually much more efficient if you are not stopping constantly to correct typographical errors. Virtually all spell checkers provide for the creation of custom dictionaries for scientific terms and unusual words. To keep you from relying too much on spell checkers, I offer the following poem, Janet Minor's ''Spellbound":

		I have a spelling checker, It came with my PC; It plainly marks four my revue Mistakes I cannot sea. I've run this poem threw it, I'm sure your pleased too no, Its letter perfect in its weigh, My checker tolled me sew.

		Page-Layout Applications

		Page-layout programs help you format elaborate page designs. Multiple columns are much easier to create in a page-layout application than in a word-processing program, providing a far greater degree of control for placing elements. These are programs generally used by graphic designers for producing final pages ready for print. Although you can key in text as part of the page-layout process, most people write in a word-processing application and then place the text that has been written into the page-layout application. Popular page-layout programs include Quark Express and Adobe PageMaker. Many journals prefer that writers submit their work in a word-processing program, with the publisher creating final pages in a layout program.

		Adobe FrameMaker is a page-layout program that is preferred by technical writers. Writing in this layout application can be as easy as writing with a word-processing program. However, FrameMaker also allows for a multitude of format arrangements particularly suited to technical material, including the ability to set mathematical formulas. The program enhances the indexing process by providing text markers and codes especially designed for indexing. Templates can be created for complex designs to automate the design and paging process. Some journals, particularly those devoted to mathematics and chemistry, accept work written in FrameMaker.

		Adobe Acrobat is a kind of hybrid page-layout program. Its Distiller application converts an electronic file, both text and images, into a

Page 101

		format with universal typefaces that can be interpreted by all users. The layout of the original file is maintained, including placement of graphics. The converted file, which ends with a .pdf designation, can be placed on the Internet for downloading. When viewed on screen, using the freely available Adobe reader, the .pdf file simulates book pages while at the same time offering the advantages of electronic files. When printed, the .pdf file looks like your original file, regardless of what typefaces the viewer has available.

		Specialized Applications

		Different disciplines and even individual journals often have different requirements for their citation formats. In addition, most word-processing programs do not create formatted citations for these disciplines. Applications are available for providing you with the citation or bibliographic format you want or require. EndNote, one of the most commonly used citation applications, allows you to customize templates to suit your needs. (See Chapter 12, "How to Cite the References," for more on citation and bibliography programs.)

		If you need to create effective tables and charts, many programs are available to you. Microsoft Word allows you to create excellent tables. You can place as many rows and columns as you need, in the typefaces and type sizes required by your journal. DeltaGraph Pro, for both Macintosh and Windows, has many different types of chart and graph styles to choose from. Data can be keyed in directly or imported from a spreadsheet program such as Lotus or Excel. Typefaces and type sizes can be customized. Grid lines can be selected by width and their locations customized as required. Chart, a Microsoft program that is also part of Microsoft's Office 96 suite of programs, will construct charts by using data from within the program or from Excel, another component of Office 96. It can transport a chart you create to PowerPoint, the slide- show application in Office. The chart template designs are focused primarily on business needs but will also be useful for simple scientific charts and graphs.

		Some journals accept tables imbedded into the text. Most journals, however, need all graphics to be printed as hardcopy output at 600 dpi minimum resolution. Photographs generally need to be supplied as 8 x 10 inch glossy prints. Some journals will accept digital photographs,

Page 102

		with at least 1200 dpi resolution. Some journals accept graphics electronically. Find out a journal's requirements before creating final graphics and other art. (See Chapter 13, "How to Design Effective Tables," and Chapter 14, "How to Prepare Effective Graphs," for more on table and graph creation programs.)

		Using Your Word-Processing Program

		Most writers now use word-processing programs to prepare their manuscripts. Almost all scientific journals accept, and many now require, articles or reports on disk in electronic format. Listed below are just some of the advantages word-processing programs offer to writers:

		• Outlining is built into many applications.

		• Revision and editing are greatly simplified.

		• Multiple drafts are more easily supported.

		• Collaborative work is made easier.

		• Table- and chart-making capabilities are built into many applications.

		Templates

		Templates are a combination of text and page formats that encode the basic arrangement of a page. A template includes specifications for such items as margins, typefaces for text, major and minor headings, and captions. A template can be created for both word-processing and page-layout applications. Templates do not automate the process entirely; rather, they make preparing the manuscript easier for the writer by providing a basic formatting arrangement that can be modified for specific needs. For instance, an author can modify a template to meet all the style requirements of a specific scientific journal. Templates are also a way of maintaining consistency when working collaboratively. Templates can be created for cover letters, title pages, and complete manuscripts.

		Editing and Revising Your Manuscript

		Some writers like to edit directly on the screen. Others prefer to make their editorial changes on printed hardcopy, and many use a combination

Page 103

		of both. Since we tend to see things differently on the computer screen than on paper output, the editing process works best with a combination of both. How you proceed is essentially a matter of personal preference. Printouts are also useful if you wish to have collaborators and colleagues critique your paper as you develop it.

		Saving, Backing Up, and Printing Your Document

		While writing, you should save your file at least every 10 minutes. You can even set your word-processing program to remind you to save or to save automatically. If the computer crashes, you will lose only a little of your work. At the end of a writing session, make sure you back up your work. Save it on a floppy disk or on a Syquest or Zip cartridge. Be sure to save your file by a name and in a folder or directory that is unique so you can find it again easily. This procedure is particularly important if you are sharing a computer with others. If you are new to computers, check out the manual that came with the machine for document-naming conventions.

		Occasionally, you may want to keep two different drafts of your paper because you like both versions and are still not sure which one you want to follow. You can save two or more separate versions, as long as the file name for each is different. Remember, file names are for your benefit and ease of use. For instance, if I name the first version of my manuscript DAY1, the second version can simply be named DAY2. The main thing is to name your files so that you can remember what they refer to. When looking for your file, another helpful feature with both Macintosh and Windows is the ability to see the creation date and time of your file. If you are looking for the most recent version and don't remember the name you gave it, refer to the creation date and time.

		When you are ready to edit a hard-copy version of your paper, print it out. These printouts can be made at lower resolution, if you do not have immediate access to a high-resolution printer. When you submit your paper to a journal, it should be done on at least a 300-dpi printer. Smeary copy or low-resolution inkjet or dot-matrix quality is not acceptable. As mentioned above, most journals prefer that artwork, including charts and tables, be laser quality, printed at 600 dpi or better.

Page 104

		Storing Frequently Used Text for Repeated Use

		A great time saver when writing your electronic document is the ability to store frequently used text as boilerplate. In Word, expressions are stored in the Word Glossary and associated with a short reference name to call up the complete word or phrase. In WordPerfect, a stored expression is accessed by a macro keyboard command with a similar short reference name.

		Abbreviations and acronyms can also be stored for repeated use. If you wish to catalog abbreviations with their full name, use the Glossary in Word. When you choose the term from the Glossary menu, or press the keyboard character access, the full expression will be placed in your file automatically, wherever you have placed the cursor. If you have stored the expression as a macro in WordPerfect, use the macro keyboard command. Refer to your user manual for more complete instructions on how to use this facility.

		Electronic Transmittal of a Document

		Most journals will accept your document (tabular material may be excluded) on a floppy disk or other disk media, such as Syquest or Zip cartridges. Journals also require three to five hardcopies of the manuscript to accompany the electronic version. All correspondence with a journal, including the disk and all hard-copy sheets, should be labeled with the corresponding author's initials and last name. You should also state whether the disk is for Macintosh or Windows, what software you have used, and the version. In addition, supply a hardcopy printout of the files stored on your disk or cartridge, with a description of what each file contains.

		Submitting an Electronic Abstract

		Associations these days often ask for abstracts of papers before the paper itself is submitted for a conference. Many organizations will accept the abstract as simple hardcopy or in an electronic disk version. Other associations may require that the author insert typesetting codes to speed up the process. The American Society for Microbiology <http://www.asmusa.org>, when asking members for abstracts for a recent

Page 105

		conference, required the authors to insert special tags to indicate italic, bold, superscript, and subscript formatting. Their example for a start and end tag for italicized text appeared as follows:

		$\IPseudomonas aeruginosa$$END is detected . . .

		They also required that Greek characters be spelled out and preceded by a $ tag. Abstracts were submitted from an Official Abstract Form on the Society's Web site. Items on the form included boxes for submission type, the title, author names and affiliations, the abstract itself, and three keywords. To submit the abstract, the author merely pressed the Submit button.

		Page Layout and Typography

		Because many journals and professional publications now accept papers in electronic format, you will need to find out what format the publication requires and set up your word-processing pages accordingly, prior to submission. Publication requirements may include margin settings, typefaces, and heading styles. Journals will usually specify such formatting considerations as justification and alignment of text. If you are submitting your paper electronically, you will need to know a little about typography and page makeup as well as the basics of word processing.

		Margins

		Many journals specify the preferred size for margins. Your word-processing program will allow you to set the widths for all your margins. Within the top or bottom margins, you can set consecutive page numbers, any identifying text that you select, and even the date and time. Information set in this way is referred to as a header or footer, depending on whether it is placed at the top or bottom of the page. You can place the page number at the top of the page as a header or at the bottom as a footer. You can center the page number at top or bottom, or you can set it left or right at top or bottom. You can even make the numbers of facing pages set on the inside or the outside margins of both. You will want to consult with the editors of the journal to which you are submitting for their preference in placing page numbers.

Page 106

		Justification and Alignment

		Justification describes the particular alignment of the type. Left-justified text, the most common format for text, lines up vertically on the left. It may be ragged on the right, meaning the type is not lined up vertically on the right. Justified text, the style usually employed in typesetting books, lines up vertically on both the right and left margins. The word-processing application sets up justified text by adding or subtracting the spacing between words in each line to force the alignment on both left and right margins. Although your word-processing program will allow you to do this easily, most journals prefer that you submit electronic material in a left-justified ragged-right format. Doing so avoids the need for their typesetting system to override the commands of your word-processing program.

		Hyphenation

		Word-processing applications allow automatic hyphenation. The computer refers to a dictionary and to rules of hyphenation that are built into the application. These dictionaries may not always work for you, especially since scientific terminology is often not found in an ordinary word-processing dictionary. Your word-processing program will also allow you to hyphenate unknown words manually. The new words are saved in a custom dictionary for future use. Specialized dictionaries are available for a number of scientific disciplines. Most journals ask you not to hyphenate text because the hyphenation may interfere with their typesetting system. In addition, some words may lose clarity of meaning when broken up by a hyphen. In text set ragged right, long words do not need to be hyphenated. Publications that do allow hyphenation may have a particular style requirement, such as never to set more than three hyphens in a vertical row.

		Typography

		Electronic typography comes in two distinct constructsTrueType and PostScript. PostScript was developed for laser printers and provides clean sharp type regardless of how the image looks on the screen. TrueType works well on the screen but can cause problems when

Page 107

		converted to print. It is best used for slides projected from a computer and for other material that will be viewed from a monitor. Always use PostScript fonts for publication purposes.

		Times Roman is the most frequently specified typeface for text type in the body of a paper. It is an easy-to-read serif type. (Serif type has little terminators, called serifs, at the end of the stroke lines forming each character.) The typeface usually specified for headings in electronically submitted papers is Helvetica, a sans serif typeface. (Sans serif characters do not have serif terminators at the ends of the strokes and, unlike serif type, are equally weighted, with all strokes of each character having the same width throughout.) Journals also generally prefer that the text type for a submitted manuscript be 12 points in size and double spaced to make it easier to read and comment upon in writing. (In the United States, type is measured in points, with 72 points comprising one inch.)

		The standard typeface for scientific symbols is, appropriately enough, Symbol. Scientific journals usually prefer that you use Symbol when preparing your paper. Other typefaces were especially designed for mathematics and chemical formulas. Some publications accept them, but others do not. If you are using a typeface other than Symbol, you must be sure that the journal has a copy of the face you are using. Journals also prefer that you do not use a graphic symbol as part of your text. Refer to the journal for the editors' preferences in this matter. Using a special symbol typeface for a graphic, and submitting a hardcopy printout of the graphic as artwork for publication, usually presents no problem.

		TeX is a word-processing type composition program created by Donald Knuth of Stanford University for typesetting complex technical manuscripts. The name TeX, pronounced "tek," is based on the Greek letters Tau, Epsilon, and Chi, whose Roman equivalents are T, E, and X. The program is available to run on Unix, Windows, and Macintosh platforms. Such organizations as the American Mathematical Society <http://www.ams.org> prefer that manuscripts sent to them be formatted in TeX. Templates are available for electronic formatting of a manuscript in TeX.

		Final Review

		After the manuscript has been input, you will be wise to do two things.

		First, read it yourself. You would be surprised how many manuscripts are submitted to journals without being proofread after final

Page 108

		typingmanuscripts so full of typing errors that sometimes even the author's name is misspelled. Recently, a manuscript was submitted by an author who was too busy to proofread not only the final typing of the manuscript but also the cover letter. His letter read: "I hope you will find this manuscript exceptable." We did.

		Second, ask one or more of your colleagues to read your manuscript before you submit it to a journal. It may well be that the meaning of one or more parts of your paper is completely unclear to your colleague. Of course, this may be because your colleague is dense, but it is just possible that this portion of your manuscript is not as clear as it could be. You might also ask a scientist working in a different field to read your paper and to point out words and phrases he or she doesn't understand. This is perhaps the easiest way to identify the jargon that may be present in your manuscript. In addition, ask someone whose knowledge of English is reasonably expert to read the manuscript. In short, the ideal in-house "peer review" of your manuscript would include review by (1) a scientist working in your field, (2) a scientist working in an unrelated field, and (3) a person highly competent in English. Careful management of this presubmission process is likely to improve the chances of acceptance by the journal.

		Expect to sweat a bit, if you haven't already done so. As the Instructions to Authors of the Journal of General Microbiology once put it, "Easy reading is curst hard writing."