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AFM atomic force microscopy: A type of scanning probe microscopy in which a probe systematically rides across the surface of a sample being scanned in a raster pattern. The vertical position is recorded as a spring attached to the probe rises and falls in response to peaks and valleys on the surface. These deflections produce a topographic map of the sample.  [MeSH]  Imaging glossary

applied research: Aimed at gaining knowledge or understanding to determine the means by which a specific, recognized need may be met. In industry, applied research includes investigations oriented to discovering new scientific knowledge that has specific commercial objectives with respect to products, processes, or services. [National Science Foundation, Directorate for Social, Behavioral & Economic Sciences, US definitions for resource surveys 1996] http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/seind96/ch4_defn.htm  Research glossary

automation: Needed to industrialize processes, for higher throughput, greater reliability and often for cost- effectiveness. Related terms Drug discovery & development LIMS, robotics

bioengineering: Is rooted in physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology, and the life sciences. It is the application of a systematic, quantitative, and integrative way of thinking about and approaching the solutions of problems important to biology, medical research, clinical proactive, and population studies. The NIH Bioengineering Consortium agreed on the following definition for bioengineering research on biology, medicine, behavior, or health recognizing that no definition could completely eliminate overlap with other research disciplines or preclude variations in interpretation by different individuals and organizations.

Integrates physical, chemical, or mathematical sciences and engineering principles for the study of biology, medicine, behavior, or health. It advances fundamental concepts, creates knowledge for the molecular to the organ systems levels, and develops innovative biologics, materials, processes, implants, devices, and informatics approaches for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, for patient rehabilitation, and for improving health. [NIH, Office of External Research, Bioengineering Definition Committee, July 24, 1997]  http://grants.nih.gov/grants/becon/bioengineering_definition.htm Biomaterials glossary

BioMEMS Biological MicroElectro Mechanical Systems: BioMEMs & Biomedical Nanotechnology WORLD 2000 encompasses all interfaces and intersections of the life sciences and clinical disciplines with microsystems and nanotechnology. Areas of interest include, but are not limited to, micro- and nanotechnology for drug delivery, tissue engineering, harvesting, manipulation, amplification, and sequencing of nucleic acids, proteomics, microfluidics and miniaturized total analysis systems (microTAS), biosensors, molecular assembly, nanoscale imaging, and integrated systems. Contributions addressing all stages of research and development are welcome, from basic science fundamentals and technology concepts to product development, clinical investigations, and business and ethical considerations.  BioMEMs and Nanotechnology World 2001  Sept. 22-25 2001, Columbus OH  Miniaturization glossary

biotechnology: The integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms, cells, parts thereof and molecular analogues for products and services. [IUPAC Compendium] Related term biotechnology industry Business of the life sciences glossary

CE-MS (Capillary Electrophoresis- Mass Spectrometry):  Separation is achieved through channels etched on the surface of the capillary (connected to an external high- voltage power supply) which delivers sample to ESI- MS.  Automatable approach, with great sensitivity. [CHI Proteomics]  Chromatography & electrophoresis glossary

combinatorial chemistry: In the early 1990's it was believed that combinatorial chemistry would revolutionize the drug discovery industry. Ten years later the route from design and synthesis of compound libraries to identification of lead structures is still long and costly. Synthesis of an almost unlimited number of organic compounds covering as much of chemistry space as possible is no longer the most cost effective and time saving approach to hit identification. Creating libraries, using biological target structure to inform chemical design, facilitated by quantum advances in structural genomics and computational capabilities, is a smarter, more efficient way to produce good initial leads. Considering solubility, permeability and other drug- like properties early in library design and introducing both target and lead structural constraints in lead development are further ways to ensure more compounds make it to trial.  Exploiting Molecular Diversity Feb. 11-12, 2002 San Diego CA  Drug Discovery & development glossary

detector technologies: Include fluorescence, fluorescence polarization, colorimetry, mass spectrometry, luminescence, primer extension and minisequencing. [Michael Phillips, CHI Nucleic Acids Technologies conference, June 7-9, 2000] Detector instrumentation includes CCD cameras, lasers. Advances in Assays, Molecular Labels, Signaling  & Detection: Profiling PCR  June 27-28, 2002, Washington DC

disruptive technologies: Some technologies are improved in a linear fashion or incrementally.  Others truly change the paradigm.  Clayton Christensen writes about these in The Innovator's Dilemma. What is particularly interesting about Christensen's analysis (based on data from the disk drive industry) is that he found disruptive technologies tended to be much cheaper than existing technologies. Existing companies were quite capable of developing the technologies (and had). What they couldn't do was figure out how to market them and whether it made sense to devote sufficient resources to them (which in many cases would not have been the responsible thing to do.)  Related term nonlinear. Business of the life sciences glossary

emerging technologies: Frequently mentioned examples of emerging technologies include biomaterials,  information technology, telecommunications, and nanotechnology. Business of the life sciences glossary

enabling technologies: Frequently cited examples of enabling technologies for drug discovery and development are combinatorial chemistry, high-throughput screening, microarrays, bioinformatics and computational biology, nanotechnologies, and imaging (including biosensors and biomarkers) Business of the life sciences glossary

genetic engineering: Directed modification of the gene complement of a living organism by such techniques as altering the DNA, substituting genetic material by means of a virus, transplanting whole nuclei, transplanting cell hybrids, etc. [MeSH] Related term recombinant DNA technology. [IUPAC Compendium] Biomaterials glossary

genomics technologies - integrated: The grand challenge of fully characterizing the genomics/ proteomics of the intact living cell … The information coming from these projects [Human Genome Project, variety of plant genome sequencing initiatives, and the completion of an extensive array of microorganism genomes], massive and complex as it will be, provides only the starting point for understanding how the cell, the basic unit of life, interprets the blueprint contained in its genome … What is not understood is how the cell creates and orchestrates its own physiology using the information contained in its DNA …. it is unlikely that a useful understanding of the cell will be possible until a quantitative appreciation of both rates and equilibria of molecular processes in the living cell is achieved. [National Center for Research Resources "Integrated Genomics Technologies Workshop Report" Jan 1999]  http://www.ncrr.nih.gov/newspub/genomic.pdfRelated terms Informatics Overview

hyphenated techniques: Usually involves a combination of chromatography and/ or mass spectrometry, NMR or other spectroscopy  technologies.

mass spectrometry: This technique can be used to both measure and analyze molecules under study. It involves introducing enough energy into a target molecule to cause its ionization and disintegration. The resulting fragments are then analyzed, based on the mass/ charge ratio to produce a "molecular fingerprint."  [CHI Microarrays]

A significant force behind progress in proteomics. [CHI Summit Proteomics] Mass Spectrometry glossary

microarray: Tool for studying how large numbers of genes interact with each other and how a cell’s regulatory networks control vast batteries of genes simultaneously. Uses a robot to precisely apply tiny droplets containing functional DNA to glass slides. Researchers then attach fluorescent labels to DNA from the cell they are studying. The labeled probes are allowed to bind to cDNA strands on the slides. The slides are put into a scanning microscope to measure … how much of a specific DNA fragment is present. [NHGRI,]  

Roger Brent has compared microarrays to the telescope or microscope because they enable the observer to see what was previously unobservable.

This technology finds itself center stage thanks to the successful decoding of the human genome. Regardless of its enormous potential, only recently has the number of application papers surpassed that of review articles. In other words, we have a technology that works well despite, rather than because of, our understanding of the subject Microarrays to Macroresults 3 Advancing Drug Development April 29- May 1, 2002 Boston, MA   Microarrays glossary

miniaturization: Desirable for many technologies for overall cost reduction (including reduction in the amount of reagents and analytes). Important to remember that building space is often the least available and most expensive component of a laboratory budget. Miniaturization glossary

multiplex: A sequencing approach that uses several pooled samples, greatly increasing sequencing speed. [DOE] Gene amplification & PCR glossary

NMR Nuclear Magnetic Resonance: A technology for protein structure determination. NMR generally gives a lower- resolution structure than X-ray crystallography does, but it does not require crystallization. NMR is currently applicable only to smaller proteins. [CHI Structural Proteomics] NMR & X-ray crystallography glossary

nanoparticles: Nanometer scale particle fabrication is seeing progress, for a number of applications. Producing nanoparticles by nanocrystalization is an aspect of  molecular nanotechnology. Miniaturization glossary

nonlinear: Advances in genomic technologies are a mix of incremental improvements to existing technologies (linear) and occasionally, a truly new paradigm or breakthrough.  Related terms disruptive technologies, emerging technologies, complex. 

PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction: Nucleic acid amplification and detection have become the most widely used techniques for conducting biological research. Utilization is applied to an increasing range of applications including diagnostics in bench- top research to the clinical arena, genomic screening for drug discovery to toxicology, screening for contamination, and identification of unknown organisms to even discovery of new flora and fauna. Microarray development continues to drive these discoveries. Nucleic-Acid Based Technologies: Profiling PCR  June 24-26, 2002 • Washington, DC  Gene amplification & PCR glossary  

platform technologies: A type of corporate partnering that first gained favor in 1996 - “platform technology” deals - in the fields of combinatorial chemistry, gene therapy and genomics. In each of these areas, companies have developed innovative partnering strategies for granting non- exclusive licenses to several pharmaceutical companies simultaneously, thus permitting varying degrees of access to their early- stage technologies. Michael Lytton "Platform- Technology Deals Increasingly Will Drive Genomics and Gene Therapy Alliances" Palmer & Dodge] http://www.palmerdodge.com/about/publicationoutput.cfm?fileID=36 Related terms target technologies, tool technologies. Business of the life sciences glossary

recombinant DNA technology: A body of techniques for cutting apart and splicing together different pieces of DNA. When segments of foreign DNA are transferred into another cell or organism, the substance for which they code may be produced along with substances coded for by the native genetic material of the cell or organism. Thus, these cells become "factories" for the production of the protein coded for by the inserted DNA.  [NIGMS]

Related terms biotechnology, gene manipulation, genetic engineering. Biomaterials glossary

robust:  A process which is relatively insensitive to human foibles and variables in the way (for example, an assay) is carried out, a statistical term.  Drug discovery & development glossary

sample: 1. In statistics, a group of individuals often taken at random from a population for research purposes 2. One or more items taken from a population or a process and intended to provide information on the population or process.  3. Portion of material selected from a larger quantity in some manner chosen so that the portion is representative of the whole. [IUPAC Tox] Related Terms aliquot,  biased sample, random sample, solid phase extraction, split sample. stratified sample, systematic sample. Drug discovery & development glossary

sample prep: Up- stream sample preparation continues to present several challenges in the field, from informed consent to production of higher quality material. The quality of isolated nucleic acid and protein sample is critical in obtaining data, which is accurate and informative. With clinical material it is often imperative to obtain a homogenous sample or isolate individual cells. Sample capture, transportation, storage and handling is as critical as extraction and purification procedures. Further advances in chip and other technologies has amplified the need for higher throughput in conjunction with miniaturization and automation of sample preparation processes.  Genomic Sample Preparation May 2-3, 2002  •  Boston, MA Drug discovery & development glossary

sexy technologies:  What makes technologies sexy?  It seems to be a combination of being new, innovative, challenging, affording clever people a chance to learn new skills (and demonstrate how competitive and bright they are) and expensive (or otherwise unavailable to everyone). A quick search of the web identifies high- speed computers, robotics, nanotechnology, HDTV, Java,  wireless communications and biomaterials as "sexy" by some criteria.  I'd be interested to hear other interpretations and nuances of this class of technologies. Are there significant differences in what are sexy technologies to biologists, businesspeople, chemists, computer scientists and others?  Business of the life sciences glossary

single molecule detection: Recent advances in optical imaging and biomechanical techniques have demonstrated that it is possible to make observations on the dynamic behavior of single molecules, to determine mechanisms of action at the level of an individual molecule, and to explore heterogeneity among different molecules within a population. These studies have the potential to provide fundamentally new information about biological processes and are critical for a better understanding of cellular function. ...  Single molecule methods are likely to lead to significant advances in understanding molecular movement, dynamics, and function. [NIGMS, NICDC, NHGRI, Single Molecule Detection and Manipulation, Feb. 12, 2001]  http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-01-049.html  Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

standards: in Bioinformatics glossary, Microarrays glossary

synchrotrons: Devices for accelerating protons or electrons in closed orbits where the accelerating voltage and magnetic field strength varies (the accelerating voltage is held constant for electrons) in order to keep the orbit radius constant. [MeSH]  NMR & X-ray crystallography  Related terms Structural genomics glossary

technologies: Narrower terms include biotechnology, detector technologies, disruptive technologies, emerging technologies, enabling technologies, genomic technologies, sexy technologies, technology, technology transfer webs. Business of the life sciences glossary

technology audit: Business of the life sciences

tissue engineering: The term "tissue engineering" was coined at an NSF- [National Science Foundation] sponsored meeting in 1987. At a later NSF- sponsored workshop, tissue engineering was defined as "...the application of principles and methods of engineering and life sciences toward fundamental understanding ...and development of biological substitutes to restore, maintain and improve [human] tissue functions." This definition is intended to include procedures where the biological substitutes are cells or combinations of different cells that may be implanted on a scaffold such as natural collagen or as synthetic, biocompatible polymers to form a tissue. ["Tissue Engineering" National Science Foundation] http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/nsfoutreach/htm/n50_z2/pages_z3/45_pg.htm  Biomaterials glossary

zeptomole: 10^–21 mole. One-sextillionth. Assays, labels, signaling & detection glossary

Bibliography

Encyclopedia of Analytical Instrumentation, Brian Tissue, Chemistry Hypermedia Project, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, US, 1995- 2000. http://www.chem.vt.edu/chem-ed/ac-meths.html

Alpha glossary index

IUPAC definitions are reprinted with the permission of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.